مغز همه انسان ها، علیرغم تفاوت های ژرف ژنتیكی، در اساس یكی است

هر عملی در رویا بخش مرتبط با آن عمل در مغز را فعال می کند

کودکان انسان همکاری در حل مشکل را ترجیح می دهند، شمپانزه ها نه

مغز برنده: در یک رقابت ورزشی نفس گیر، مغز در نهایت بدن را برنده می کند

مغز ما برای خوشبین بودن سخت افزاری شده است

هنگامی که در مورد هوش صحبت می کنیم، به واقع خرد کل می تواند برتر از جمع خرد اعضا باشد.  در مطالعه جدیدی که به وسیله پژوهشگران ام.آی.تی.، دانشگاه کارنگی ملون، و یونیون کالج انجام گرفت آنها مستنداتی را گردآوری کردند که وجود خرد جمعی را در میان گروه هایی از افراد که به خوبی با هم همکاری می کنند نشان داد، و نیز نتیجه گرفت که چنین عقلی فراتر از قابلیت های شناختی تک تک اعضای گروه بوده، و این که همکاری موثر در یک گروه با تعداد زنان حاضر در آن رابطه مستقیم دارد.

بسیاری از دانشمندان علوم اجتماعی برای مدت ها ادعا می کرده اند که قابلیت افراد برای آن که وظایف شناختی گوناگون را به خوبی انجام دهند نشانگر وجود درجه ای از هوش قابل اندازه گیری در هر فرد است.  در مطالعه ای که در شماره زودهنگام و آنلاین مجله علمی "ساینس" انتشار یافت، پژوهشگران اصل مشابهی را به تیم های کوچکی از افراد بسط دادند.  آنها دریافتند گروه هایی که دارای پویایی درونی مناسبی هستند در انجام طیف وسیعی از وظایف به خوبی عمل می کنند – یافته ای که می تواند دارای کاربردهای بالقوه ای در بخش های بازرگانی و سازمان ها باشد.

آنیتا ویلیامز وولی، نویسنده اصلی مقاله و استادیار دانشکده بازرگانی تپپر در کارنگی ملون  می گوید: "ما بر مبنای آزمودن این نظریه شروع کردیم که گروه ها، همانند افراد، قابلیت پایداری در انجام مجموعه ای از وظایف دارند." تامس دبلیو. میلون، یک نویسنده دیگر مقاله و استاد مدیریت کرسی مک گاورن در دانشکده مدیریت سلون در ام.آی.تی. ادامه می دهد: "نظریه ما تایید شد.  ما دریافتیم که یک تاثیرگذاری همگانی، یک خرد دستجمعی گروهی وجود  دارد که عملکرد گروه  را در بسیاری موردها پیش بینی می کند."

پژوهشگران بر این باور  هستند که هوش جمعی از آنجا برمی آید که افراد گروه تا چه اندازه با یکدیگر همکاری می کنند.  برای نمونه، گروه هایی که افراد آن را کسانی با "حساسیت اجتماعی" افزون تر تشکیل می دادند دارای خرد جمعی بالاتری بودند.   کریستوفر کبریس، یک هم-نویسنده مقاله و استادیار  روان شناسی در یونیون کالج نیویورک می گوید: "حساسیت اجتماعی به این ارتباط دارد که اعضا تا چه اندازه به خوبی احساسات یکدیگر را درک می کنند."  وولی می افزاید: "همچنین در گروه هایی که یک فرد نقش چیره داشت، این گروه ها از هوش جمعی کمتری، در مقایسه با گروه هایی که در آنها جریان بحث چرخش متعادل تری داشت، برخوردار بودند."  به علاوه، تیم هایی که شمار زنان در آنها بالاتر بود حساسیت اجتماعی بیشتری نشان دادند و در مقابل خرد جمعی آنها در مقایسه با گروه هایی که تعداد زنان کمتری داشت بالاتر بود.  ...

When Facing Difficult Tasks, New Study Finds Groups Demonstrate Distinctive 'Collective Intelligence'

Editor's Choice
Main Category: Psychology / Psychiatry
MNT - Article Date: 02 Oct 2010

When it comes to intelligence, the whole can indeed be greater than the sum of its parts. A new study co-authored by MIT, Carnegie Mellon University, and Union College researchers documents the existence of collective intelligence among groups of people who cooperate well, showing that such intelligence extends beyond the cognitive abilities of the groups' individual members, and that the tendency to cooperate effectively is linked to the number of women in a group.

Many social scientists have long contended that the ability of individuals to fare well on diverse cognitive tasks demonstrates the existence of a measurable level of intelligence in each person. In a study published in the advance online issue of the journal Science, the researchers applied a similar principle to small teams of people. They discovered that groups featuring the right kind of internal dynamics perform well on a wide range of assignments, a finding with potential applications for businesses and other organizations.

"We set out to test the hypothesis that groups, like individuals, have a consistent ability to perform across different kinds of tasks," says Anita Williams Woolley, the paper's lead author and an assistant professor at Carnegie Mellon's Tepper School of Business. "Our hypothesis was confirmed," continues Thomas W. Malone, a co-author and Patrick J. McGovern Professor of Management at the MIT Sloan School of Management. "We found that there is a general effectiveness, a group collective intelligence, which predicts a group's performance in many situations."

That collective intelligence, the researchers believe, stems from how well the group works together. For instance, groups whose members had higher levels of "social sensitivity" were more collectively intelligent. "Social sensitivity has to do with how well group members perceive each other's emotions," says Christopher Chabris, a co-author and assistant professor of psychology at Union College in New York. "Also, in groups where one person dominated, the group was less collectively intelligent than in groups where the conversational turns were more evenly distributed," adds Woolley. And teams containing more women demonstrated greater social sensitivity and in turn greater collective intelligence compared to teams containing fewer women.

To arrive at their conclusions, the researchers conducted studies at MIT's Center for Collective Intelligence and Carnegie Mellon, in which 699 people were placed in groups of two to five. The groups worked together on tasks that ranged from visual puzzles to negotiations, brainstorming, games and complex rule-based design assignments. The researchers concluded that a group's collective intelligence accounted for about 40 percent of the variation in performance on this wide range of tasks.

Moreover, the researchers found that the performance of groups was not primarily due to the individual abilities of the group's members. For instance, the average and maximum intelligence of individual group members did not significantly predict the performance of their groups overall.

Only when analyzing the data did the co-authors suspect that the number of women in a group had significant predictive power. "We didn't design this study to focus on the gender effect," Malone says. "That was a surprise to us." However, further analysis revealed that the effect seemed to be explained by the higher social sensitivity exhibited by females, on average. "So having group members with higher social sensitivity is better regardless of whether they are male or female," Woolley explains.

Malone believes the study applies to many kinds of organizations. "Imagine if you could give a one-hour test to a top management team or a product development team that would allow you to predict how flexibly that group of people would respond to a wide range of problems that might arise," he says. "That would be a pretty interesting application. We also think it's possible to improve the intelligence of a group by changing the members of a group, teaching them better ways of interacting or giving them better electronic collaboration tools."

Woolley and Malone say they and their co-authors "definitely intend to continue research on this topic," including studies on the ways groups interact online, and they are "considering further studies on the gender question." Still, they believe their research has already identified a general principle indicating how the whole adds up to something more than the sum of its parts. As Woolley explains, "It really calls into question our whole notion of what intelligence is. What individuals can do all by themselves is becoming less important; what matters more is what they can do with others and by using technology."

"Having a bunch of smart people in a group doesn't necessarily make the group smart," concludes Malone.

Notes:
In addition to Woolley, Malone and Chabris, the other co-authors were Alexander Pentland, the Toshiba Professor of Media Arts & Science at the MIT Media Lab; and Nada Hashmi, a doctoral candidate at MIT Sloan.
"Evidence for a collective intelligence factor in the performance of human groups" by Anita Williams Woolley, Christopher F. Chabris, Alexander Pentland, Nada Hashmi, and Thomas W. Malone. Science, 30 September, 2010. 

Source: Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Copyright: Medical News Today

همه ما می دانیم که فرایند انداختن رای در صندوق انتخابات، سیاست ها، ارزش ها، و شخصیت ها را شامل می شود.  اما، پیش از آن که شما آن دگمه را برای نامزد مورد نظرتان فشار دهید [رای را به صندوق بیاندازید]، مغز شما از پیش یک رای گیری [درونی] انجام داده است تا به آن تصمیم برسد.  پژوهش جدیدی از دانشگاه وندربیلت فاش می کند که مغز ما در رویارویی با یک تصمیم گیری ابتدا به جمع آوری مستندات می پردازد و هنگامی که آن مدارک موازنه را به نفع یک جهت تغییر دادند شروع به عمل می نماید. این پژوهش در شماره اکتبر "سایکالاژیکال ریویو" [مرور روان شناسانه] انتشار یافت.   بریدن پرسل، یک دانشجوی دوره دکترا در دانشکده روان شناسی و یکی از نویسندگان اصلی این مطالعه اظهار داشت: "نمونه های روان شناسانه [فرایند] تصمیم گیری نشان می دهد که انسان ها برای رسیدن به یک تصمیم مشخص به تدریج و در طول زمان اقدام به جمع آوری مدارک می کنند، و هنگامی که شواهد به یک مرحله کلیدی می رسد تصمیم خود را عملی می کنند."  وی افزود: "ما دریافتیم که به نظر می رسد سلول های عصبی ویژه ای نماینده جمع آوری مدارک تا آستانه ای هستند و دیگران نماینده خود آن مدارک هستند، و کنش و واکنش این دو گونه از سلول های عصبی است که تصمیم گیری را راهبری می کند." پژوهشگران به میمون ها وظیفه ساده یافتن هدفی بر روی یک صفحه نمایشگر را که محتوی اقلامی برای منحرف کردن حواس آنها نیز بود محول کردند.  پژوهشگران دریافتند نرون هایی که اطلاعات دیداری را پردازش می کنند اطلاعات صفحه نمایشگر را به سلول های عصبی عهده دار حرکت خوراندند.  این سلول های حرکتی به  مانند دروازه بانان عمل کرده، و تا هنگامی که اطلاعات دریافتی از نرون های دیداری به اندازه کافی روشن نبود مانع عمل می شدند.  ، آنگاه که  آن [وضوح] اتفاق می افتاد سلول های عصبی حرکتی کار خود را شروع کرده و حرکت انتخاب شده را  عمل می کردند. پژوهشگران همچنین متوجه شدند که نرون های حرکتی در رقابت میان آنچه که دیده می شد – در این حالت، میان هدف و اقلام انحراف حواس – میانجی شده و اطمینان می یافتند که در هنگام نگاه کردن به آیتم درست تصمیم گرفته می شد.   به گفته چفری شال، یک هم نویسنده این مطالعه و صاحب کرسی برونسون اینگرام در عصب شناسی: "به نظر می آید آنچه که مغز انجام می دهد این است که برای هر رایی که برای یک کاندیدا دریافت می کند یک رای برای کاندیدای مخالف را بی اثر می سازد، و به این ترتیب تفاوت های میان دو را بزرگنمایی می کند.  سامانه (سیستمی) که تصمیم نهایی را می گیرد به نتایج آرا تا هنگامی که روشن نیست نتیجه انتخابات به سمت کدام کاندیدای مشخص پیش خواهد رفت گوش نمی دهد.  در آن نقطه، مداری که حرکت را ایجاد می کند استارت می زند و حرکت رخ می دهد."  ...   Neurons Cast Votes to Guide Decision-Making ScienceDaily (Oct. 8, 2010) — We know that casting a ballot in the voting booth involves politics, values and personalities. But before you ever push the button for your candidate, your brain has already carried out an election of its own to make that action possible. New research from Vanderbilt University reveals that our brain accumulates evidence when faced with a choice and triggers an action once that evidence reaches a tipping point. The research was published in the October issue of Psychological Review. "Psychological models of decision-making explain that humans gradually accumulate evidence for a particular choice over time, and execute that choice when evidence reaches a critical level. However, until recently there was little understanding of how this might actually be implemented in the brain," Braden Purcell, a doctoral student in the Department of Psychology and lead author of the new study, said. "We found that certain neurons seem to represent the accumulation of evidence to a threshold and others represent the evidence itself, and that these two types of neurons interact to drive decision-making." The researchers presented monkeys with a simple visual task of finding a target on a screen that also included distracting items. The researchers found that neurons processing visual information from the screen fed that information to the neurons responsible for movement. These movement neurons served as gatekeepers, suppressing action until the information they received from the visual neurons was sufficiently clear. When that occurred, the movement neurons then proceeded to trigger the chosen movement. The researchers also found that the movement neurons mediated a competition between what was being seen -- in this case, the target and distracting items -- and ensured that the decision was made to look to the proper item. "What the brain seems to do is for every vote it receives for one candidate, it suppresses a vote for the other candidate, exaggerating the differences between the two," Jeffrey Schall, E. Bronson Ingram Chair in Neuroscience and co-author of the study said. "The system that makes the response doesn't listen to the vote tally until it's clear that the election is going towards one particular candidate. At that point, the circuitry that makes the movement is triggered and the movement takes place." The findings offer potential insights into some psychological disorders. "Impairments in decision-making are at the core of a variety of psychological and neurological impairments. For example, previous work suggests that ADHD patients may suffer deficits in controlling evidence accumulation," Purcell said. "This work may help us to understand why these deficits occur at a neurobiological level." An important piece of this research is the novel model the researchers used in the study. The new model combined a mathematical prediction of what they thought would transpire with actual data about what the neurons were doing. "In a model, usually all the elements are defined by mathematical equations or computational expressions," Thomas Palmeri, associate professor of psychology and a co-author of the study, said. "In our work, rather than coming up with a mathematical expression for the inputs to the neural decision process, we defined those inputs with actual recordings from neurons. This hybrid model predicts both where and when the eyes move, and variability in the timing of those movements." "This approach provides insight between psychological processes and what neurons are doing," Schall said. "If we want to understand the mind-brain problem, this is what solutions look like." The research was supported by the Temporal Dynamics of Learning Center, the National Science Foundation, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the James S. McDonnell Foundation and the National Institutes of Health as well as Robin and Richard Patton through the E. Bronson Ingram Chair in Neuroscience. Palmeri is director of graduate studies for the graduate program in Psychological Sciences and co-director of the Perceptual Expertise Network. Schall is director of the Center for Integrative Cognition and Cognitive Neuroscience, director of the Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, and a Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development investigator. Additional co-authors on the study were Richard P. Heitz, Jeremiah Y. Cohen and Gordon D. Logan. [SD] Editor's Note: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Story Source: The above story is reprinted (with editorial adaptations by ScienceDaily staff) from materials provided by Vanderbilt University.

ایجاد سر و صدای "اغتشاش خالص" (وایت نویز) در کلاس می تواند به کودکان بی اعتنا در  یادگیری کمک کند.  پژوهشگران  در مجله علمی آزاد دسترس "بیهیویرال اند برین فانکشنز" (عملکردهای رفتاری و مغز)، وابسته به مرکز بایومد، نوشتند که آنها تاثیر صداهای بی معنای تصادفی را بر یک گروه 51 نفری از کودکان دانش آموز آزمایش کردند و دریافتند که اگرچه این صداها برای کودکانی که به طور عادی توجه دارند مانع ایجاد کرد، اما حافظه کودکانی که در تمرکز دچار مشکل بودند را بهبود داد.

گوران سودرلوند از دانشگاه استکهلم، سوید، با همراهی گروهی از پژوهشگران این آزمایش ها را در یک مدرسه راهنمایی در نروژ انجام داد.  به گفته وی: "با افزایش میزان صداها، در  عملکرد کودکانی که توسط آموزگاران خود به عنوان کم توجه شناسایی شده بودند بهبود چشمگیری مشاهده شد، و در عملکرد آنهایی که متمرکز شناسایی شده بودند کاهش چشمگیری دیده شد.  این یافته می تواند کاربرد عملی داشته و روش غیر تهاجمی، و غیر دارویی برای کمک به کارنامه کودکانی باشد که دارای چالش های تمرکزی هستند."

در این آزمایش، از کودکان خواسته شد تا هر اندازه که می توانند موردهایی را از یک سیاهه که با صدای بلند در هنگام پخش و یا عدم پخش اغتشاش خالص برای آنها خوانده می شد به خاطر بسپارند.  پژوهشگران گمانه زنی کردند که پدیده "تشدید تصادفی" (استوکاستیک رزوننس) ممکن است عملکرد کودکان بی توجه در این آزمایش را توضیح دهد.  به گفته سودرلوند، "هنگامی که اغتشاش خالص به موج (سیگنال) ضعیفی که در پایین آستانه شنوایی قرار دارد اضافه می شود آن (سیگنال) را قابل ردیابی می کند.  مطالعه ما برای اولین بار صدا و تشدید تصادفی را هم به عملکردهای شناخت برتر و هم به توجه ربط می دهد."

Study Links Noise and Stochastic Resonance to Higher Cognitive Functions and Attention

The Medical News | 29 September 2010

Playing white noise in class can help inattentive children learn. Researchers writing in BioMed Central's open access journal Behavioral and Brain Functions tested the effect of the meaningless random noise on a group of 51 schoolchildren, finding that although it hindered the ability of those who normally pay attention, it improved the memory of those that had difficulties in paying attention.

Göran Söderlund from Stockholm University, Sweden, worked with a team of researchers to carry out the experiments at a secondary school in Norway. He said, "There was significant improvement in performance for the children rated as inattentive by their teachers, and a significant decline in performance for those rated as attentive as noise levels were increased. This finding could have practical applications offering non-invasive and non-pharmacological help to improve school results in children with attentional problems".

The children were challenged to remember as many items as possible from a list read out either in the presence or absence of white noise. The researchers speculate that a phenomenon called 'stochastic resonance' may explain the improved performance of inattentive pupils seen in the test. According to Söderlund, "When a weak signal is presented below the hearing threshold it becomes detectable when random or white noise is added to the signal. Our study is the first to link noise and stochastic resonance to both higher cognitive functions and attention".

در این مقاله به نقش فروید در بنیانگذاری روانکاوی بعنوان یک روش علمی در یافتن اسرار درونی آدمی تاکید شده است. مطالعه این مقاله را به دانشجویان توصیه می نمایم.

دکتر ابراهیمی

Sigmund Freud
and the Spirit of Psychoanalysis

By Jean Chiriac, President of AROPA

Everybody knows today that Sigmund Freud, the famous Viennese neurologist, is the founder of psychoanalysis. But because of the influences of the nowadays psychoanalytical  expression and culture, few still know what Freud thought about the psychoanalysis he had created, what opinion he had regarding the task of psychoanalysis.

To Freud psychoanalysis was a scientific method  for the investigation of our mental life and a psychotherapeutic method.

Being scientific, it borrows from the exigencies of science two fundamental aspects:

- the requirement of observing the studied facts. Unlike religion, which derives its truths from revelations, psychoanalysis extracts them from direct observation;

- the description and  the integration into a theory, the formulation of the rules that contribute to the occurrence and manifestation of the observed facts.

We must remember that psychoanalysis hadn't been revealed to Freud, as a mystical act, but it was based on his (and others') clinical observations, in a step-by-step process.

To Freud  psychoanalysis never stopped to be a therapeutical method. Although it often gave birth to some speculations concerning the cultural, religious facts, etc., in Freud's view psychoanalysis should be restricted to the  theory of neuroses. And to its task to cure mental disorders.

To this we must add the following detail: in Freud's view, the necessity to understand the mysteries of he human behavior was considered the  first and foremost in the psychoanalytical act. More than once Freud stated that is more important to understand than to treat. Of course this vision is shocking for us but it emphasized what is essential  regarding the spirit of psychoanalysis: the fact of interrogating the psychical observed phenomena in order to understand the enigma of the human behavior and, therefore, to cure of, where it is meet and proper. The emphasis on understanding, on knowledge represents the unmistakable  mark of the spirit of psychoanalysis...

Translation by Ochea Corina

دکتر ابراهیمی

آنچه در مقاله زیر مطالعه می کنید بررسی روانشناختی جالبی از فضای روابط کودک در خانواده که منجر به رفتارهای ناسازگارانه  می گردد را ارائه نموده که قابل توجه می باشد.

New Research on Alienated Children by Daniel H. Swerdlow-Freed, Ph.D. (Daniel H. Swerdlow-Freed, Ph.D.is a Licensed Psychologist. Contact information is available at the end of this article.) Several years ago, our newsletter featured an article on parental alienation, in which we summarized Richard Gardner's proposition that parental alienation syndrome, or PAS, was a diagnosable disorder with distinct features. Over the past several years, his opinions have received much criticism and led mental health professionals to formulate research-based explanations of the dynamics that cause children to reject contact with a parent. On the basis of their research, Drs. Joan Kelly and Janet Johnston recently published a new theory of the alienated child, which we believe advances understanding of this complicated issue. Since this topic is of interest to so many of our readers, we are providing a summary of their paper. ** Kelly and Johnston define an alienated child as "…one who expresses, freely and persistently, unreasonable negative feelings and beliefs (such as anger, hatred, rejection, and/or fear) toward a parent that are significantly disproportionate to the child's actual experience with that parent." Their definition requires that the child's behavior toward and relationship with the alienated parent should be the primary focus, rather than the behavior of the alienating parent, as Gardner suggested. Furthermore, they note the importance of differentiating the alienated child from other children who resist contact with a parent for realistic or developmentally appropriate reasons. This new formulation conceptualizes a child's relationship to each parent as falling along a continuum from positive to negative. At its most healthy end, a child enjoys a positive relationship with both parents and wants to spend approximately equal time with each of them. The next position is for children who have an affinity with one parent. These children feel closer to, and prefer to spend more time with one parent but desire substantial contact with the other parent. Some children express a consistent preference for either their mother or father during the marriage, and have formed an alliance with that parent. Following separation or divorce, these children may desire limited contact with the non-preferred parent, although they do not completely rejecting this individual. Alliances often develop because of unhealthy dynamics that existed during the marriage, intense post-divorce conflict or children's moral assessment of their parent's behavior. Such alliances have the potential to become unhealthy, particularly if parental conflict continues at a high level. Two factors that distinguish allied from alienated children are that the former are willing to acknowledge positive feelings for the non-preferred parent, and they can articulate credible reasons for seeking reduced contact with that individual. Children who have witnessed or been subjected to violence, abuse or neglect, are at increased risk to become estranged from the parent who perpetrated these acts, although their feelings about that parent may only be expressed after separation has occurred and a sense of safety has developed. A child may also become estranged from a parent who is extremely immature and self-centered, consistently unreliable or inadequate, or chronically angry, rigid or critical. While estranged children may present as if they are alienated, they differ from alienated children because their fear and anger have a basis in reality and their attitudes and behavior are in proportion to these experiences. At the unhealthy end of the continuum is the alienated child, who completely rejects a parent without showing any guilt or ambivalence, and refuses all contact with that individual. Severe distortions and exaggerations often characterize the child's reports about the relationship with the rejected parent. Close scrutiny reveals that these youngsters are often responding to dynamics that occurred during the divorce process, to ill-advised parental behavior and to their own psychological vulnerabilities. Using a systems framework, Kelly and Johnston identified a series of factors and child responses that are critical to accurate diagnosis and effective intervention. They determined that while risk factors vary from one case to another, they often contain the following components: a child who has become triangulated in the parental conflict, a spouse who experienced the decision to divorce as a profound humiliation, an ongoing pattern of intense conflict and litigation, and to the involvement of new partners, extended family or other professionals who purposely or unwittingly contribute to conflict. If a child perceives that s/he has been abandoned by a parent, that child is vulnerable to become alienated. Feelings of abandonment may occur when a parent leaves the marital home, when a child is seriously confused about the reasons for the separation or divorce, or when a parent begins a new love relationship and devotes less attention to the child. In some cases, separation followed by long periods with no contact between the nonresidential parent and the child can exacerbate the child's sense of abandonment. Children who were psychologically vulnerable prior to separation often lack the resiliency to cope with the pressures that accompany divorce. Some children find it easier to deal with anxiety and uncertainty by siding with one parent against the other, and thereby securing the preferred parent's loyalty. Children who do have good reality testing may become confused by events they witness or overhear, and are vulnerable to misinterpret or misunderstand their meaning, especially if they cannot discuss these situations with a caring adult who can help them make an independent evaluation of their experience. Through our work with divorced children and parents, we know that no single factor produces an alienated child, and that these convoluted, difficult situations threaten the psychological well being of each family member. We believe, along with Kelly and Johnston, that a comprehensive assessment is needed to clarify the multiple factors that have led a child to reject a parent with whom s/he previously enjoyed a meaningful relationship. Only with the benefit of such an evaluation, can each pertinent factor be identified and accounted for, and an effective intervention strategy planned and implemented.

دکتر ابراهیمی روانکاوی شیوه ای در جهت بررسی فرآیندهای روانی است که بوسیله سایر روشها امکانپذیر نمی باشد. این شیوه برای درمان اختلالات نوروتیک بکار می رود. در مقاله زیر شما به زبان ساده کاربرد روانکاوی و تکنیکها و ابزار مورد استفاده روانکاوان را به همراه تاریخچه کوتاهی از آن را مطالعه خواهید نمود.     What is Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a method for the investigation of mental processes, inaccessible by other means. At the same time psychoanalysis is also a therapeutic method for neurotic disorders. Freud on Tabor Str by Joachim Torr As therapeutic technique, psychoanalysis is different from psychiatry and psychotherapy in general, as it stipulates the existence of a psychic unconscious, and insists on analysis and the integration of the unconscious as therapeutic procedure. The psychoanalysis gradually built on clinical observation and research, accompanied by reflections and theoretical ideas concerning the structure of the psychic apparatus, the dynamic of mental processes, repression, resistance, transference, etc. The definition of psychoanalysis includes knowledge acquired from psychic unconscious research and analysis. Such knowledge has gradually made up a new body of science called psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is also applied to the study of social, cultural, and religious phenomena. In this latter aspect, demanding for a re-evaluation of the mechanisms and meanings of culture, psychoanalysis has penetrated the consciousness of the wider public beyond its therapeutic limits. Psychoanalysis was Born in Vienna Psychoanalysis was born in Vienna by the end of the 19th century and spread with the contribution of Freudian disciples and dissidents, who, more or less loyal to Freudian theories, have issued currents and schools of psychoanalysis with various shades of difference. That is the case of analytic psychology forged by C. G. Jung, as well as that of individual psychology, made up by Alfred Adler. Psychoanalysis together with elements of psychoanalytical doctrine and practice are also to be found in modern psychotherapeutic currents, under various shapes and blends. Sigmund Freud on Psychoanalysis "Psycho-analysis is the name (1) of a procedure for the investigation of mental processes which are almost inaccessible in any other way, (2) of a method (based upon that investigation) for the treatment of neurotic disorders and (3) of a collection of psychological information obtained along those lines, which is gradually being accumulated into a new scientific discipline." (From "Two Enciclopaedia Articles", 1923) "Psycho-analysis may be said to have been born with the twentieth century; for the publication in which it emerged before the world as something new - my Interpretation of Dreams - bears the date '1900'. But, as may well be supposed, it did not drop from the skies ready-made. It had its starting-point in older ideas, which it developed further; it sprang from earlier suggestions, which it elaborated." (From "A Short Account of Psycho-Analysis", 1924) "Freud […] made an alteration in their technique, by replacing hypnosis by the method of free association. He invented the term 'psycho-analysis'..." (From "Psycho-Analysis", 1926). AROPA

عنوان مقاله ای که مطالعه خواهید کرد این است :‌ازدواج هنگامی برای سلامت زنان مفید است که میزان رضایت زناشویی در آنها بالا باشد.

 دکتر ابراهیمی

بر اساس این پژوهش جالب زنانی که  از ازدواجشان رضایت زیادی دارند سلامت روانی و رفتاری بدنی بالایی دارند و کمتر دچار بیماریهای خطرناک نظیر اختلالات عروقی  و قلبی می گردند. مطالعه این مقاله را به همه دانشجویان و علاقمندان توصیه می نمایم.

MARRIAGE APPEARS TO BE BENEFICIAL TO WOMEN’S HEALTH, BUT ONLY WHEN MARITAL SATISFACTION IS HIGH, NEW RESEARCH SHOWS

WASHINGTON — Women who are in satisfying marriages have a health advantage over unmarried women or those in unsatisfying marriages, according to a study published in the September issue of Health Psychology, a journal of the American Psychological Association (APA). The study, involving middle-aged women over a 13-year period, finds that women in good marriages were less likely to develop risk factors that lead to cardiovascular diseases compared with other middle-aged women.

Researchers from San Diego State University and the University of Pittsburgh compared cardiovascular risk profiles and trajectories of women who were married or living with a romantic partner and who had high relationship satisfaction with those of women with moderate or low relationship satisfaction and with those women who were single, divorced and widowed. Participants were 493 women (ages 42-50) from the University of Pittsburgh’s Healthy Women Study, a longitudinal study that looked at health risk factors during and after menopause. Risk factors were measured during an average of more than five visits over 13-years. Each visit included a blood draw to measure cholesterol and glucose levels, blood pressure evaluation, body-size measurements and assessment of health behaviors (such as diet, smoking and exercise) and psychosocial characteristics (such as depression, anxiety, anger and stress).

Participants who were married or cohabitating completed a seven item marital quality questionnaire that assessed satisfaction with amount of time spent together, communication, sexual activity, agreement on financial matters and similarity of interests, lifestyle and temperament. The questionnaire was completed at the beginning of the study and during the three-year follow-up assessments.

Results indicate that women in marriages characterized by high levels of satisfaction showed a health advantage when compared with participants in marriages characterized by low levels of satisfaction and with unmarried participants (single, widowed or divorced). This included lower levels of biological and lifestyle cardiovascular risk factors – such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels and body mass index – and lower levels of psychosocial cardiovascular risk factors – such as depression, anxiety and anger. Those women in highly satisfying marriages also showed this same health advantage when compared with women in moderately satisfying marriages, but to a lesser extent.

How might being in a good marriage influence health? Previous research indicates several direct and indirect factors may be a work, according to the authors. Marriage itself may offer a health advantage by providing social support and protecting against the risks associated with social isolation. Also, spousal influence and involvement may encourage health-promoting behaviors and deter unhealthy behaviors. Married people, especially women, may also be at a health advantage relative to their unmarried counterparts through the increased availability of socioeconomic resources.

However, research shows poor marital quality may erase these health advantages, say the authors. Marital stress is associated with lifestyle risk factors and nonadherence to medical regimens. Poor marital quality is also linked with more depression, hostility and anger, all risk factors for coronary heart disease. Thus, marital status and quality could influence metabolic risk factors and acute stress responses, which in turn predict cardio-vascular morbidity and mortality, according to the study.

“For the most part, the higher risk groups seemed to maintain an elevated level or risk across the entire study, suggesting that by middle age, the cumulative influence of being single, divorced or widowed or of being in a distressed relationship had already occurred,” according to the researchers. Future research with younger couples may identify how and when women in distressed marriages and unmarried women develop higher risk cardiovascular profiles, they add

استرس و هیجان می تواند سلامت قلب را مورد هدف قرار دهد.

STRESS AND EMOTIONS CAN NEGATIVELY AFFECT HEART HEALTH بر اساس مطالب زیر هر گونه فشار روانی می تواند مستقیما به آسیب های جدی قلبی منجر گردد. در مقاله زیر به زبان بسیار ساده چند راهکار برای تشخیص و اقدام در جهت ممانعت از چنین آسیبهایی ارائه شده است.مطالعه آن برای دانشجویان مفید می باشد.  دکتر ابراهیمی APA Provides Tips for Mind/Body Health WASHINGTON — Prevention is a key message during National Heart Health month, and the American Psychological Association (APA) today released strategies to help Americans manage stress. Research shows that 20 percent of Americans are worried that stress will affect their health, yet 36 percent say they deal with stress by eating or drinking alcohol. While these behaviors may reduce stress in the short term, they contribute to an unhealthy lifestyle that can negatively affect your body and are proven risk factors for cardiovascular disease. “Achieving a healthy lifestyle comes from adopting behaviors over time that help to manage stress in effective ways that don’t at the same time take a toll on your physical health and body,” says Russ Newman, Ph.D., J.D., APA executive director for professional practice. Although heart disease is a serious condition that requires constant monitoring, there are many lifestyle and behavioral changes you can do to manage stress and reduce your risk for cardiovascular problems. • Identify the sources of stress in your life and look for ways to reduce and manage them. Seeing a professional like a psychologist to learn to manage stress is helpful not only for preventing heart disease, but also for speeding recovery from heart attacks when used along with structured exercise programs and other intensive lifestyle changes. • Talk to your doctor. No two people are alike, and some treatment or risk reduction strategies may be inappropriate or even harmful if you attempt to do too much too quickly. • Avoid trying to fix every problem at once, if possible. Focus instead on changing one existing habit (e.g., eating habits, inactive lifestyle). Set a reasonable initial goal and work toward meeting it. • Don't ignore the symptoms of depression. Feelings of sadness or emptiness, loss of interest in ordinary or pleasurable activities, reduced energy, and eating and sleep disorders are just a few of depression’s many warning signs. If they persist for more than two weeks, discuss these issues with your heart doctor. It may be that a psychologist working in collaboration with your physician would be beneficial. • Enlist the support of friends, family, and work associates. Talk with them about your condition and what they can do to help. Social support is particularly critical for overcoming feelings of depression and isolation during recovery from a heart attack. • If you feel overwhelmed by the challenge of managing the behaviors associated with heart disease, consult a qualified psychologist. He or she can help develop personal strategies for setting and achieving reasonable health improvement goals, as well as building on these successes to accomplish other more ambitious objectives. A psychologist can also help clarify the diagnosis of depression and work with the physician to devise a suitable treatment program. For more information about mind/body health, heart disease and stress management, please contact Peter Wilson at (202) 336-5910 or visit APA’s Help Center at www.apahelpcenter.org. To download APA’s pre-packaged news segment on heart health or to capture mind/body health sound bites, please visit http://apahelpcenter.mediaroom.com